Policies to Protect Food Safety and Animal Health

Protecting food safety and animal health is critical for maintaining public health, consumer confidence, and profitability of animal agriculture. Several developments in North American animal agriculture have an increasing impact on food safety and animal disease risks and the methods used to manage these risks.

Demand for animal food production is increasing as world population increases and developing countries have more disposable income. Increased production to meet this demand has led to more confined, concentrated and intensified systems all over the world. In North America, this intensification is regional, especially with poultry, swine and cattle feedlots. Dairies are becoming fewer and larger and are concentrating in geographic areas not traditional to dairy production. As animal production costs increase without assurances of sector profitability, enterprise numbers continue to decline.

Driving forces in food safety and animal health across North America include questions about feed additives, biotechnology, foodborne diseases, links between animal and human diseases, and traceability. Animal health and food safety issues are closely related, yet in some cases require separate strategies. Even if there are similarities in the approaches that address animal diseases and food safety, it is important to recognize that objectives and desired outcomes are often different. Policies and practices meant to protect domestic food supplies and herd/flock health (breeding stock and egg/chick quarantines) may serve as "trade barriers," though they are not intended as such.

Food Safety Dimensions

Foodborne microbial pathogens, which may result in human illnesses, will continue to be the major focus of food safety concerns. Estimates of the costs of human illnesses and costs to the food industry attributed to foodborne pathogens are well-documented (Buzby et al., 1996; Crutchfield & Allhouse, 1998; Goodwin & Shiptsova, 2002; Unnevehr, 2003). Detailed treatment of this topic is beyond the scope of this paper, the purpose of which is to raise both new and ongoing issues related to food safety and animal health and the interface of the two. This paper draws on a much longer report, The Future of Animal Agriculture in North America (Farm Foundation, 2006).

Food safety and assuring consumers their food is safe will continue to be a challenge for the industry. Private sector efforts to minimize risks of recalls and protect brand equity are part of an effective food safety strategy. The processing sectors have adopted process control strategies (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point or HACCP) to reduce the risks of microbial contamination during slaughter and processing. The production sector is adopting quality assurance programs to address specific product quality and food safety issues, such as measures to reduce the presence of harmful microbes in the live animal before transport and slaughter.

The incidences of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and E. coli contamination have brought demands for adoption of traceability and quality assurance systems to manage the animal products supply chain. The dominance of international food retailers has been a key factor in wide use of such systems, even when not demanded by regulations. The rapid growth of supermarkets in developing countries and trade agreements are also driving food safety concerns.

Globalization of food trade provides greater food choices, but presents the potential for confusion if consistent standards in safety and labeling do not exist. Increased consumer sophistication and advanced information technology pose both a challenge and an opportunity for firms and government to inform consumers and address their concerns. Maintaining consumer confidence requires not only minimizing the risk of foodborne illness, but responding to consumer concerns through increased education regarding safety of some practices and/or labeling policies.

Animal Health Dimensions

Animal health is closely linked to food safety and consumer confidence, but is also central to the profitability of the livestock and poultry production sectors, and in some cases, even national economies. In addition to increased production costs and lower revenues for farms with a disease, trade restrictions due to the presence of particular diseases have an economic impact on all producers in the industry. One cow testing positive for BSE in the United States resulted in the immediate loss of $3 billion in annual beef exports from 2003 to 2004 (Doud, 2006).

Joint efforts between research universities and public agencies have controlled and eradicated many animal diseases through advances in veterinary medicine, basic research, educational programs, and animal housing. However, without vigilance and effective surveillance systems, even eradicated diseases can return. Vigilance is also necessary to guard against potential terrorist attacks to the food system.

Several developments will play an important role in meeting the challenge of protecting animal health. Animal identification and tracking systems would potentially allow restricted animal movement within or between countries while controlling disease, thus minimizing trade distortions. Farm-level biosecurity measures to reduce disease risk and developments in vaccine research are also providing new tools to lessen the threat and impact of animal diseases to farmers.

Globalization has increased both export opportunities for North American livestock and poultry and the risk of introducing foreign animal diseases that could be economically devastating to these industries. Even if the disease is not deadly and is quickly contained, its presence can have a prolonged economic impact by disrupting exports and trade within North America. To protect animal industries and consumers from importing disease or food safety problems, sanitary and phytosanitary standards have become part of most trade agreements. Phytosanitary standards can be trade distorting and protectionist, accentuating the need for harmonizing standards and their enforcement within the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

Providing traceability of animals through production, processing and marketing is an example of interactions between efforts to protect both food safety and animal health. Advances in information technology and improved infrastructure to trace animal disease threats will provide a vehicle to share more product information through the supply chain. Individual firms may utilize the information infrastructure as part of an enhanced process control system. Advanced supply chain management systems also allow for traceability of food products, which facilitates faster, more targeted recalls when needed.

Policy Measures and Implications

Animal health and food safety are important components of national security in each of the North American countries. They are public goods requiring public intervention or collaborative industry efforts rather than individual producer actions (Unnevehr, 2004). The challenge is to develop and implement policies that most effectively protect a safe and secure food supply and a competitive livestock and poultry sector in North America, given increasing concentration and intensification of animal agriculture. Some components of a comprehensive strategy for government, business and research efforts to protect food safety and animal health are identified here. Many of these will require additional resources. There are various vehicles for financing these measures that will help producers and consumers; check-off programs and reallocation of existing program funds are one possibility. Economic pressure in the industry could make it more difficult to obtain such funding, but increased concentration in the industry might make it easier to implement new measures because a smaller number of industry decision makers control more of the supply. Larger firms may be better able to cover the fixed costs associated with protecting food safety and animal health. Further, they have greater incentives to provide food safety, given that a bad publicity event that erodes a firm's reputation or brand could have a significant monetary effect. However, larger firms may be better able to weather temporary drops in revenue or increased costs, somewhat reducing this incentive.

Establish a NAFTA-wide, high-level, authoritative, and accountable coordinating mechanism for food safety and animal health. Animal health threats go beyond impacts on single private entities to affect the entire animal production value chain and even the economy as a whole, under the right circumstances. National structures coordinated across NAFTA countries and appropriate to organizational and financial constraints faced by each could serve as a focal point for engaging and enhancing partnerships among local, state, and federal agencies and the private sector (National Research Council, 2005). In the United States, several federal and state agencies and various animal and human health organization programs are responsible for food safety and animal health policy, but there are implementation gaps, ineffective communications, and failures in information sharing. The 2005 report by the National Academy of Sciences National Research Council says the United States needs a new high-level mechanism to coordinate research and information exchange and dissemination efforts on new and emerging animal-borne diseases, such as BSE, avian influenza, and West Nile virus.

Strengthen publicly-funded basic research efforts. In the United States, state and federal government agencies could re-emphasize the practice of supplying formula funding on an intermediate or long-term basis to support ongoing basic research efforts. The recent migration toward predominately competitive funding tends to emphasize hot-button issues of an applied nature, rather than supporting long-term, system-wide innovations that would address the animal health and food safety issues outlined in this report. However, this base funding should not be supplied at the expense of Extension and public education programs necessary to effectively disseminate appropriate information.

As the risks to animal health evolve, so must mechanisms to address them. To develop and implement effective and efficient tools, work is needed to assess and predict this evolution of risks, evaluate the current system's response capabilities, identify areas where improvements may be warranted, and communicate them effectively. Attention should be given to risk research and assessment, as well as communication capacity among all stakeholders.

Develop a comprehensive NAFTA-wide diagnostic, monitoring and surveillance network. Such a cooperative and functional network would multiply the efficacy of networks in the United States and Canada and establish a comparable functioning network in Mexico. The network could share access to stockpiles of vaccinations and treatment agents for many of the most probable and virulent diseases and also serve as a clearing house for methods to limit disease spread by effectively utilizing quarantine and animal disposal protocols. Past cooperative eradication programs have set precedent and serve as models for such a network. Eradication programs established jointly between Mexico and the United States for Foot-and-Mouth Disease and screw worm successfully ended the extensive and adverse impacts of both animal health issues in North America.

Enhance capabilities for rapid and widespread information dissemination to industry and the public. Both government and the industry would benefit from fast and widespread access and dissemination of information when dealing with food safety or animal health hazards. This information is essential to retain consumer confidence in the food system at home and abroad. Establishment of national traceability systems is important. Increased public and private investment could help reduce disease transmission and enhance public and animal health. Public awareness supported by education and training programs is critical to food safety and animal disease prevention. It may be possible to develop training for the animal agriculture industry, including local, regional, or national associations, which focuses on strategic and tactical cooperation in the event of food safety, animal health, or biosecurity emergencies.

Increase government-sponsored, food-animal veterinarian positions. A National Academy of Sciences National Research Council report calls for stronger efforts to recruit more veterinarians and other scientists into veterinary research, noting that a growing shortage of veterinary pathologists, lab animal scientists and other veterinary researchers is making it more difficult to meet mounting challenges. These positions could be comprised of more private practice food-animal veterinarians, more government public health veterinarians, and more government veterinarians in research. Sufficient economic incentives attached to these positions would increase attraction and retention of qualified personnel. Food-animal veterinarians would be directly involved in import inspections, live animal auctions, and monitoring concentrated animal feeding operations.

Encourage and provide ongoing support for developing new scientific tools and technologies to enhance animal disease prevention, detection, and diagnosis in North America. The current animal health framework should evaluate, validate, and implement rapid prevention strategies to protect the health of the nation's animal populations. A gap in the current border protection system is importation or unnoticed transfer of animals produced under nonstandard commercial conditions (exotic animals, backyard livestock, and poultry). There is a documented lack of inspection protocols and procedures involving health of these animals. Animals produced out of the mainstream put national herds and flocks at risk because they are not integrated into the food security network.

Establish indemnity insurance for animal agriculture. Although there are provisions for indemnity payments to producers for animals with value under $3,000, there are currently no government-backed insurance programs for animal agriculture that parallel those for crop agriculture. Consequently, livestock producers are subject to absorbing catastrophic losses (destroyed animals, market loss or collapse, business interruptions) that may be associated with animal health events, particularly for breeding animals with value over $3,000. Financial risk management of animal diseases is an issue that government and industry must effectively address in partnership to ensure that effective and efficient financial risk management tools are in place to deal with future animal disease outbreaks. A revised and strengthened indemnity program could address this issue, reducing private sector uncertainty, and thus increasing reporting compliances and cooperation. A broader production certification program addressing food safety, animal health, and emergency management could also be developed.

Gain international approval for full equivalency of food safety and animal health standards for trade. The present lack of consistency in international standards and their enforcement creates inequities in trade among potential partners and may well limit trading arrangements. It is necessary to eliminate this artificial trade barrier so that competitiveness may be accurately evaluated and gains from trade may be more fully realized. There are currently prescribed events and standards that signal conditions for which trade interruptions commence, but such signals to recommence trade are not readily apparent. A functioning mechanism establishing "triggers" to allow trade to resume once food safety and animal health concerns were alleviated, could be implemented.

Summary

Protecting the safety of the food supply is essential to all countries. Canada, Mexico, and the United States spend significant resources to assure that food is safe to eat and wholesome. Animal health is closely linked to food safety and consumer confidence and is also central to the profitability of the livestock and poultry production and processing sectors. The options discussed here offer a range of public-sector involvement and discretion on how to efficiently utilize scarce government resources. Many of these options will require increased funding, but the benefits of improved protection likely outweigh the costs. Because producers and processors all benefit from reduced risks, developing funding mechanisms to share the costs will be important. Successful financing approaches must also take into consideration the effect of cost pressures, consolidation, and vertical integration on incentives faced by both producing and processing firms.

Overview: The Future of Animal Agriculture in North America

Animal agriculture in North America is undergoing significant change. As new products are developed to meet changing consumer preferences, new production systems are being put in place to reduce costs, and contracts are increasingly replacing open markets and redefining relationships among stakeholders in the system. Technological developments have increased productivity and efficiency at the producer level, and in processing, distribution systems and marketing. Participants throughout the animal agriculture supply chain, from genetics to retail to food service outlets, are adjusting to ongoing changes which bring opportunities but also controversy and challenges.

The issues arising from the various factors impacting animal agriculture go beyond matters of supply and demand, cost of production and transportation, and other economic factors. They include the structure of basic institutions, customs of trade and social factors that underlie the production, distribution, transformation, sale and consumption of animal products. These articles reflect the shifting forces of change, anticipate some of the direction and impacts, and identify options that will allow farmers and ranchers, meat processors, food retailers, policy makers, and consumers to make more informed decisions about the future.

Farm Foundation led an 18-month project-The Future of Animal Agriculture in North America. The goal was to develop a comprehensive, objective overview of the range of issues that will shape the industry over the next decade. This partnership of industry, government agencies, academics and nongovernment organizations explored the opportunities and challenges facing North America's livestock sector, the driving forces behind them, and their potential consequences. Funding for this effort was provided by industry, government agencies and foundations throughout North America.

The final report was released in April 2006 and is available on the Farm Foundation Web page, www.farmfoundation.org. It was organized around seven Working Groups headed by academic experts and composed of industry, government, nonprofit and academic leaders. More than 150 individuals from Canada, Mexico and the United States actively participated in the development of the Working Group reports. The objective was to give all stakeholders a clear understanding of the current state of the industry, a glimpse into the future, ideas for change and their potential consequences, and an inventory of issues that need further research, industry actions or government policy.

These articles have been prepared by leaders of the Working Groups. The authors have drawn heavily, but not necessarily exclusively, on the Farm Foundation report.

In the first article, we identify a number of cross-cutting issues that will affect the future of animal agriculture in North America. These are topics on which we need to know more to understand the long-run competitiveness of the animal agriculture industry in North America.

Boehlje's analysis of the economics of production, processing and marketing summarizes implications of consumer demand, cost drivers, changes in market structure and government policy, and regulation for competitiveness in the North American livestock industry over the next decade. This leads to some critical future challenges and opportunities that merit further analysis and research.

Jensen addresses consumer demand and the related forces driving changes in animal agriculture. Developments in the production, processing, and distribution system are designed to meet evolving consumer demands worldwide. She looks at how these trends from both sides of the market may play out. The paper also examines some policy options for helping shape the future competitiveness of the industry in North America.

Rosson et al. look at The Global Competitiveness of the North American Livestock Industry in the livestock economy, including a significant increase in market integration among the three NAFTA countries. Various segments of the animal agriculture industry are affected by different forces. To improve efficiency of the North American animal agriculture, harmonization of policies, programs, and regulations across NAFTA countries will be required. Abdalla and Lawton address environmental issues in animal agriculture associated with new technologies and restructuring of the production and marketing system. Resulting private disputes and public issues concerning animal agriculture and the environment are leading to new costs and benefits. To resolve the complex issues involved requires increased understanding and involvement by all stakeholders.

Goldsmith and Martin look at community and labor issues in animal agriculture, finding them to be significant but very diverse. The animal agriculture processing industry has shifted from urban to rural locations and relies on substantial numbers of immigrants from Latin America to provide labor. The authors look at community and social impacts, explore some future options, and emphasize the need for animal processors to partner with the communities in which they locate.

Goodwin et al. address policies to protect food safety and animal health, noting that these issues are closely related, yet in some cases, require separate strategies. The authors identify a number of possible policy measures and their implications for assuring sound food safety and animal disease prevention systems to keep North American animal agriculture prosperous and competitive.

Blandford addresses the increasing role of animal welfare issues in wealthy countries. There are increasing initiatives in states, as well in the U.S. Congress, to pass animal welfare bills. Many of the practices being questioned are associated with animal confinement, and there is increasing interest in developing voluntary standards within the industry. The author considers economic impacts of various approaches and identifies some options for the future.

Animal Welfare

Animal agriculture in North America has undergone a revolution since World War II. Productivity has increased enormously through the use of animal confinement, genetic selection, scientific feed formulation, and productivity-enhancing pharmaceuticals. There has been a shift to larger production units taking advantage of economies of scale. Critics contend that these changes have reduced the welfare or well-being of farm animals. Proponents argue that the system reduces mortality due to predators, the weather and the risk of disease.

Farm animal welfare is an increasingly prominent issue in many wealthy countries. Concerns are expressed about how farm animals are kept, some management practices, and transportation and slaughter. There is increased legislative activity and more buyer requirements for production and marketing practices.

This article draws on a much longer report, The Future of Animal Agriculture in North America (Farm Foundation, 2006).

Current Rules and Regulations

Legislation

Much of the legislation in North America deals with pets or companion animals, animals used for research, and those kept by zoos or circuses. Regulations for farm animals address humane slaughter and transport, but there is no comprehensive animal welfare law. A comprehensive bill was introduced in Mexico in 2004, but has not passed.

Canada has a federal law prohibiting cruelty to all animals and regulations dealing with the transportation and slaughter of animals for food. Each province has its own legislation dealing with animal welfare, which typically recognizes accepted humane production practices. Industry guidelines have been developed for each type of animal.

The United States has federal regulations dealing with the slaughter of livestock, but not poultry, and for the transportation of animals. Each state has an anti-cruelty statute, but most do not target farm animals or there is an exemption for accepted farming and ranching practices.

There has been a marked increase in the number of animal welfare bills introduced in the U.S. Congress in recent years. There is also much activity at the state level, although relatively few bills have been passed. Recent state initiatives include proposed prohibitions on the tail docking of cattle and on the use of stalls for sows and veal calves.

Codes of Practice and Third-Party Auditing

Codes of practice have been developed by the animal products industry, particularly in Canada and the United States. In Canada, codes have been defined for all major species of farm animals. The National Farm Animal Care Council was created in 2005. Several U.S. producer groups have introduced welfare programs, for example, the National Pork Board for swine and the United Egg Producers (UEP) for laying hens. Both of these are voluntary and rely on independent auditing by third parties. The costs are borne by the audited firms.

A major U.S. initiative has been spearheaded by the Food Marketing Institute and the National Council of Chain Restaurants. An expert advisory group developed a series of standards for production and processing. The focus is on the application of objective, measurable characteristics that can be audited. Suppliers to the food retailing and restaurant industry can voluntarily request an audit. The results can then be made available to retailers or restaurant chains who can determine whether their own requirements are being met.

Several animal welfare advocacy groups have developed welfare schemes. The Animal Welfare Institute promotes voluntary standards for a range of farm animals. Certification programs have been developed by the American Humane Association and by a consortium of animal welfare organizations through Humane Farm Animal Care.

Drivers of Change

Consumer and Public Attitudes

U.S. surveys of public attitudes generally show that there is substantial confidence in farmers and ranchers in the treatment of animals. However, there appears to be increasing concern about some practices, such as housing systems for veal calves, and intensive confinement for pigs and poultry.

Animal welfare issues are championed by a range of interest groups. Some of their views may not be widely shared, but the groups have been effective in raising the profile of animal welfare issues. Protection of the reputation and value of branded products is a key concern in the food industry, and firms respond to public pressures that threaten their interests.

International Developments

The European Union (EU) has been very active in the development of animal welfare standards, primarily through legislation. New rules will eventually result in the elimination of traditional cage systems for laying hens, and individual pens or stalls for calves and pigs, and may reduce the stocking density for broilers.

Key Issues for Change

Practices Being Questioned

Many of the practices being questioned are associated with animal confinement. Confinement can benefit animals by allowing better environmental control, but raises issues, particularly in terms of the ability to express "natural behaviors." The size of cages and whether these allow for nests or perches is central to the debate on the welfare of laying hens. The issue for swine centers on stalls that restrict the movement of sows during gestation or farrowing, and the provision of bedding material, such as straw.

Some management practices, such as restricting feed for laying hens to induce molting and a subsequent egg-laying cycle, and diets deficient in iron to produce white veal have been questioned. Other practices such as beak trimming and toe clipping for poultry, and tail docking, dehorning, branding, castration and early weaning for livestock are criticized.

The length of time animals are transported, the duration of rest periods, loading densities and the handling of non-ambulatory animals are issues. Concerns are also expressed about animal slaughter, particularly methods for stunning and handling, and culling to control disease outbreaks.

Finally, a range of issues relate to livestock breeding, particularly the impact of genetic selection on the reproductive efficiency, health and viability of farm animals.

The Development of Standards

A central question is what constitutes humane treatment for farm animals. The answer depends partly on beliefs and values that differ across individuals. Nevertheless, there is increasing acceptance of the Five Freedoms - freedom from hunger and thirst; discomfort; pain, injury, and disease; fear and distress; and any constraints on the ability to express normal behavior - as a basis for developing objective methods for evaluating animal well-being.

Public opinion will exert a major influence on the future development of standards in North America. A central issue is whether this will result in more legislation or if the industry will respond by developing and applying higher standards.

Legislation versus Collective Action

The use of mandatory standards, supported by legislation, has been the primary approach adopted in Europe. Public attitudes and perceptions about animal welfare are changing, and the science of animal welfare continues to evolve. Consequently, it is difficult to develop and apply detailed legal codes for production practices for farm animals.

The alternative is to develop voluntary codes which evolve as more is learned. The model that has been adopted so far in North America—the involvement of animal welfare experts in the development of standards and the use of independent audits—can address public concerns if those in the industry fully accept the process. Producers are the key to animal welfare practices and must be actively involved in developing standards.

Economic Impacts

Low animal welfare standards do not impose an economic cost on society unless they result in lower productivity and efficiency or pose a threat to human health. In fact, there may be gains if the prices of animal products are lower. Some argue that animal welfare is a public good, or that there are external costs not reflected in current prices of animal products. But there is little evidence of market failure. The decision to impose higher welfare standards in farming cannot be based solely on economic criteria.

Production Costs and Consumer Response

Some changes in practices can be relatively inexpensive to implement, but others are likely to increase production costs. Changes in confinement operations, particularly increased space requirements, may require the modification or construction of facilities. Extensive production systems require more land. Operating costs may increase due to higher labor requirements, increased energy consumption in larger facilities, and reduced feeding efficiency. Higher standards may also increase the costs of transporting and processing animals.

There may also be cost savings. Morbidity and mortality may decline and expenditures on disease control and treatment may fall. Greater reproductive efficiency may lead to cost savings. Product quality may improve through reduced stress.

It is difficult to generalize about the net effect, but available economic studies indicate a net increase in costs. A recent study of EU egg production suggests that unit costs under new systems are roughly 12% to 20% higher than conventional systems. Over the long term, producers might be able to adapt by adopting new technology or production techniques. However, this is unlikely to negate the adverse effects on costs and competitiveness, particularly if producers in other countries use lower standards.

Increased production costs will be reflected in higher product prices. Some consumers may be willing to pay a price premium for products that meet higher standards, others may respond by switching to products whose prices are not affected. European experience shows that estimates of willingness to pay for higher standards typically overstate actual willingness to pay in the marketplace. For welfare-friendly products to command a price premium, they must be clearly distinguishable. Labels need to be uniform and clearly understood. Research indicates that European consumers are confused by wide variations in labeling of animal-friendly products. Consumer welfare may decline if a proliferation of information makes informed choice difficult.

Welfare Standards and Competition

If all producers are required to adhere to a particular standard, they will all be on an equal basis in terms of competitive position. Product prices will tend to rise as higher costs are passed through to the market. Consumer response could affect the market share of individual products and their prices. Exporters will face a deterioration of their competitive position if other countries supply non-conforming products.

Producers who have difficulty differentiating their product face particular risks from non-conforming products. Domestic or foreign producers operating at lower costs may increase their market share. Domestically, this problem can be solved by requiring that all producers meet the standard. When non-conforming supplies originate from other countries, the situation is more complicated.

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its associated agreements contain no specific provisions for animal welfare. The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade requires that imported products should be treated as "like" products of national origin. The Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards agreement is limited to the protection of animal health and recognizes standards developed by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). In 2005, OIE agreed on four international standards for animal welfare and is currently working on others. This could go some way to addressing concerns over unfair competition from non-conforming products.

Options for the Future

The North American livestock industry is taking steps to address some of the concerns about the impact of current practices on animal well-being. Much of the effort centers on the voluntary development of standards and codes of practice. This is in contrast to Europe, where legislation and mandatory standards are playing a major role. Pressures for legislation are likely to intensify in North America if the general public perceives that self-regulation is not effective. A number of options could be used to strengthen the process.

1. Improve the flow of information to the general public.

Industry policies on animal welfare are not always visible. All stakeholders could develop a statement of principles and make this publicly available. Industry groups could support the development of educational materials.

2. Develop codes of practice.

The industry could ensure that standards and codes are developed for all types of livestock. Information dissemination and support for training could be made a high-priority activity. The industry could lend support to the development and application of appropriate science-based standards internationally.

3. Increase research and education.

Higher priority could be given to animal welfare issues in publicly funded research. Particular emphasis could be placed on developments that are both practical and economically viable. A further step would be to ensure that all educational programs in animal science, veterinary medicine, and related fields incorporate material on animal welfare—biological issues as well as ethical and socio-economic aspects. Animal welfare could be made a priority in public extension programs, particularly for the training of farmers and ranchers, and employees in the animal products industry.

The extent to which the industry voluntarily addresses animal welfare issues successfully will determine whether legislation will eventually require certain practices in animal husbandry. The above options in some combination may go a long way to quieting concerns about animal welfare.

New Vaccine From Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health Is First For Canine Influenza Virus

Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health, the global leader in veterinary biologicals, announced the availability of the first vaccine against canine influenza virus (CIV), which was granted a conditional product license by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) on May 27, 2009, for use by veterinarians in the United States.

"Canine influenza is a highly contagious respiratory infection that has a significant impact on dogs housed in shelters, kennels and communal facilities," said Cynda Crawford, D.V.M., Ph.D., University of Florida, Clinical Assistant Professor of Shelter Medicine. "The availability of a vaccine can help prevent the medical, financial and emotional costs associated with this new virus."

Canine influenza was first identified in the United States in 2004. Since then, CIV has continued to spread and has now been detected in dogs in 30 states and the District of Columbia, according to Dr. Crawford and Edward J. Dubovi, Ph.D., Professor of Virology, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, two of the nation's leading experts on Canine H3N8 who have been tracking the disease since 2004.

Most dogs have no immunity to canine influenza because it is a novel pathogen and, therefore, the infection can spread quickly through animal shelters, adoption groups, pet stores, boarding kennels, veterinary clinics and any location where dogs congregate. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), there is no evidence of transmission of the virus from dogs to people.

According to Terri Wasmoen, Ph.D., an immunologist and senior director of Biological Research for Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health, dog owners might not realize their pets are sick enough to need medical care until the dogs begin coughing, which occurs several days or more after the dog contracts CIV. The onset of coughing is a sign that the dog is vulnerable to pneumonia. "Preventing a viral infection that can make dogs susceptible to a complex of canine respiratory pathogens, commonly known as kennel cough syndrome, further strengthens the case for vaccination," she said.

In 2006, the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) called for the development of a vaccine against the spread of the disease, stating "there is urgent need for an effective canine influenza vaccine to improve the health and welfare of animals and reduce the financial impacts of canine influenza."

Christopher Pappas, Jr., D.V.M., Director, Companion Animal Technical Services, Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health, said, "We developed the vaccine in response to the growing problem of the disease. We are pleased that our expertise in respiratory disease and vaccines can help prevent costly outbreaks and keep dogs healthier."

Canine Influenza Vaccine, H3N8 has been demonstrated to reduce the incidence and severity of lung lesions, as well as the duration of coughing and viral shedding. The vaccine, made from inactivated virus, is intended as an aid in the control of disease associated with canine influenza virus infection, a type A, subtype H3N8. It is administered by subcutaneous injection in two doses, two to four weeks apart. It may be given to dogs six weeks of age or older and can be given annually as a component of existing respiratory disease vaccine protocols to ensure more comprehensive protection.

On May 27, 2009, the vaccine was granted a conditional license by the USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, which, through its Center for Veterinary Biologics (CVB), evaluates data supporting product purity, product safety under normal conditions of use in field safety trials and demonstration that the product has a reasonable expectation of efficacy. During the conditional license period, Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health will continue to submit data obtained in support of the product's performance, which will be evaluated by government regulators to determine whether a regular product license may be issued.

About Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health

Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health is a leader in research and dedicated to the development, production and marketing of innovative, high-quality animal-health products for all major farm and companion animal species.

Schering-Plough is an innovation-driven, science-centered global health care company. Through its own biopharmaceutical research and collaborations with partners, Schering-Plough creates therapies that help save and improve lives around the world. The company applies its research-and-development platform to human prescription and consumer products as well as to animal health products. Schering-Plough's vision is to "Earn Trust, Every Day" with the doctors, patients, customers and other stakeholders served by its colleagues around the world.

SCHERING-PLOUGH DISCLOSURE NOTICE: The information in this press release includes certain "forward-looking statements" within the meaning of the private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995, including statements related to expectations or forecasts of future events.

Schering-Plough does not assume the obligation to update any forward-looking statement. Many factors could cause actual results to differ materially from Schering-Plough's forward-looking statements, including market forces, economic factors, product availability, patent and other intellectual property protection, current and future branded, generic or over-the-counter competition, the regulatory process, and any developments following regulatory approval, among other uncertainties. For further details about these and other factors that may impact the forward-looking statements, see Schering-Plough's Securities and Exchange Commission filings, including Part II, Item 1A "Risk Factors" in the Company's first quarter 2009 10-Q, filed May 1, 2009.

What you can do to stop animal cruelty

Animal cruelty is at an all time high in this country as well as the rest of the world. If you see or hear of any type of cruelty to animals, it is your responsibility to notify authorities immediately, whether it is the police, game warden or proper federal agency. If you see someone beating an animal or if they are chained in a filthy area with no food or water, call the police. If you suspect someone is raising dogs to fight, call the proper authories.

Animal cruelty goes far beyond just the family 'pet' circumstances. Please be aware of the following examples of cruelty:

*Government sanctioned killing

The mass killing of the wild mustangs out West, the aerial killings of the wolves on the Endangered Species List and the brutal killings in mass numbers of the Baby Harp Seals. Contact your Representatives and voice your displeasure of these activites and ask what their stand is on the issues.

Factory Farming

For chickens on the assembly line of death, they are moved along on a conveyor belt that is supposed to cut off their heads. For those that dodge the blade, they fall into a vat of boiling water, alive. For those unloading the truckloads full of crates of chickens, it is at the amusement of the workers that a chicken be used as a football or bashed against a wall until they are dead.

When purchasing veal for your plate, take into consideration the animal is kept in a cage that they cannot stand up or turn around in, all for the sake of tenderness when they are slaughtered.

*Puppy Mills

Puppy mills are an attempt to breed the most animals possible for monetary gain. The animals are generally stacked in cages, one on top of the other, with no care to the excrement that drops down to the animal below and into the food and water supplies; if there are any. These animals are never cleaned or handled and most will not have their vaccinations. Report any activity of a puppy mill to the proper authorities.

Cock Fighting

Cock fighting, which is a centuries old tradition, is banned in 49 states. Roosters have their 'spurs' sawed off and replaced by razor sharp steel blades which are from one to three inches long, to enable them to inflict the most damage. They are also given drugs to make them more aggressive. There are laws in place for this and if you hear or know of someone engaged in this activity, call the police immediately.

*Dog Fighting

Even though dog fighting is banned in all states, there is illegal activity in both rural and urban areas. Stolen dogs are often used as 'bait' for training as well as cats and rabbits. Placed in a pen with the training dog, these animals are attacked and killed as part of the training process. These animals are beaten and starved into submission to fight and if the animal loses but is not killed, the owner may think the animal worthless and kill it anyway. There are laws in place for dog fighting, now to include prison time, so if you suspect this type of activity is going on, call the police.

*Trapping

Trapping is used most often for capturing game to eat or to sell the pelts of the animal. It is when an unsuspecting animal wanders into the steel trap that the cruelty begins. The animal, in fear, will chew its own leg off in order to escape. Traps have caused almost the near extinction of bears, mountain lions, wolves and coyotes. If you know someone who traps, pay attention to what they have killed. If you are not sure whether it has been a legal kill, contact your local game warden.

Included in this list, but not examined are: circuses, zoos, poachers, fur traders, whalers and yes, even kids with BB guns. It is up to every individual to be proactive and stop the cruelty to animals and inform the proper authorities.

Tips for adopting a stray pet

We have all seen the scrawny, flea-infested animals skulking about looking for food. Only the hardest heart does not feel the desire to help. Usually, you do not get the chance. By the time you find food or call someone to come help you capture it, it has vanished, never to return.

But, if you are really lucky, the day may come when you will find you have been adopted. A cat or dog has hung around long enough for you to feed her. Slowly she starts to let you get closer, and finally you are allowed to pet her. What joy! You have been allowed the privilege of rescuing this neglected animal and showing her the love and devotion she deserves.

Now What?

Hopefully you have already taken steps to see if her previous human companions are looking for her. If not, do this now. Ask at your local animal shelter if anyone has been inquiring about an animal that fits her description. Canvas the neighborhood and put up fliers. Take a digital picture to show around and add to the flier. Doing right by your new friend means first making sure that she is reunited with the family that loves her, if they exist. Of course, you may also keep your fingers crossed that there is no response to your efforts.

Once you have determined that nobody will claim her, it is time to get her a checkup and yourself supplies. Make an appointment with a veterinarian. Make sure he knows this is a stray, so he will give her a thorough check-up, including tests for common ailments like ringworm (and fleas, of course!) She will most likely need shots, as well. Do not skimp on this visit. Remember, if you decide to take on the responsibility of a pet, that it does cost money to ensure her health and happiness. If you do not have the money for animal care, consider letting her adopt a friend who is looking for a pet, or taking her to a local shelter (no-kill, if at all possible).

You will also need a few basic supplies. Of course, you have already been feeding her, but allow your vet to make some recommendations for her optimal health. Get a few toys (don't go overboard, you will want to see what she likes to play with first). For a cat you will need two litterboxes, placed in different areas of the house. For a dog, you will need a leash for walks. Either pet will also need a collar for a nametag and her current rabies tag.

This is a good place to start. Your love and attention will let you figure out what else your new friend might need, over time.

Sexing Rabbits

It can be very difficult to determine the sex of a young rabbit. Although the explanation and diagram below will help you, it is best to have an experienced person show you how to sex rabbits of different ages.

To determine the sex of a rabbit:

1. Hold the rabbit on his/her back on your lap with the hind legs facing away from you. With a larger rabbit, you may want to hold the rabbit with his/her hind legs facing towards you. Placing a rabbit on his/her back will put the rabbit into a state almost like a trance. Rabbits still feel pain while in this position, and should not be held this way for a prolonged period of time.

2. When first learning to sex a rabbit, it will be helpful if another person gently restrains the head of the rabbit while you use both hands to part the fur and apply gentle pressure on each side of the vent, which is the area including the anus and the genitals. (The anus is basically the opening of the intestines to the outside from which droppings are eliminated. The genitals are the external portions of the reproductive tract.) Once you have more experience, you can restrain the rabbit's head with one hand, and apply the gentle pressure with the other.

3. While applying pressure to the vent area, you will see the anus, the opening closest to the tail.

4. The opening farthest from the tail is the genitals.

   Males: In male rabbits, the penis will appear as a tubular protrusion. It is round in diameter, very light pink in young males, and has a rounded tip with a small round opening at its center. In most bucks (male rabbits) older than 10 weeks, you will also notice the testicles on each side and slightly cranial to the penis. They will feel like small mounds under the skin, and in older males, are not covered with fur. Bucks can withdraw the testicles into the abdomen, so even if you can not feel the testicles, the rabbit may still be a male.

   Females: When the gentle pressure is applied to the vent area of a doe (female rabbit), you will see a pink protrusion, but the protrusion is slanted, more oval, and has a slit versus a small round opening.

Other sexual differences in older rabbits

As rabbits age, more physical differences between the sexes will become apparent. Bucks have blockier heads and are smaller than does of the same breed. Most adult does of medium or large breeds will have a dewlap, which is the large fold of skin under their chins. Does have nipples, whereas bucks do not. However, the nipples may be difficult to find on a doe that has not had a litter. So, similar to the testicles in the males, even if you can not find the nipples on a rabbit, the rabbit could still be a doe.

Puppy care and training

Feeding

What food

Choose a dry food intended specifically for puppies, avoiding generic foods and those that sell for unusually low prices. We suggest brand name puppy food because it is impossible to distinguish good dog food from poor dog food simply by looking at the ingredient list on the label. Many things that owners look for, such as high protein levels and extra vitamins, are as likely to be harmful than helpful. For example, overfeeding and over supplementation are factors contributing to hip dysplasia. If you have a large-breed puppy, purchase "large breed" puppy food. The actual formula is different, not just the the kibble size, and is better for very rapidly growing puppies.

How often

Offer food to young puppies three times a day. If your puppy isn't hungry that often, reduce the frequency. After ten or twelve weeks of age, feed twice a day. Even adult dogs should have their food split into morning and evening feedings. When fed once a day dogs become overly hungry and are more likely to overeat at mealtime.
Let your puppy eat as much as she wants in fifteen minutes and then pick up the food dish. Having food continually available encourages overeating, and chubby puppies are more likely to have hip dysplasia and weight problems later in life. Also, because free-fed puppies never get very hungry, they don't enjoy their food unless given special treats. The combination of special treats and freely available food encourages them to become bored, overweight and picky.

People food

Do not give people food. If you start with a balanced diet and add goodies from the table, you won't have a balanced diet anymore, and your puppy will have more digestive trouble. Treats that are reasonably balanced, such as Milk Bone Biscuits are OK, but since they are not really all that great nutritionally, don't let them become an important part of the diet. Canned puppy food is perfectly all right, but we usually suggest feeding dry food because it is cheaper, easier to use, and better for the teeth.

Shots

Between six and sixteen weeks of age, puppies lose the disease protection they received from their mothers and become able to form their own immunity to disease. Unfortunately, we never know when this will happen, so there is often a brief period when puppies have lost the disease protection they received from their mothers but have not yet developed strong immunity of their own. Fortunately, new vaccines for distemper and parvovirus are much more effective than what we had even two or three years ago, and eliminate much of this problem. Also, since the new vaccines work better we don't have to give as many, which saves money.
Until your puppy is four or five months old, try to prevent contact with stray dogs or sick dogs. Avoid boarding your puppy or taking her places like highway rest stops where lots of other dogs go to the bathroom.

Distemper

When we say "distemper shot" we are talking about a combination vaccine (DAP) which protects against a group of diseases:

Infectious canine distemper (ICD) is a highly infectious viral disease that attacks the lungs and affects the brain and spinal cord in somewhat the same way polio affects people.

Canine adenovirus type 2 (CAV-2) is a respiratory virus that causes a severe form of "kennel cough".

Canine parvovirus (CPV) attacks the lining of the intestinal tract, and in very young puppies, damages the heart. It remains our most common fatal infectious disease and is the most difficult to protect against. Dobermans, rottweilers and boxer or bulldog type dogs are especially susceptible.

Leptospirosis

Causes kidney and liver damage. The disease can affect any mammal, including people, and is spread by urine contamination from infected animals such as raccoons, opossums, rats, coyotes, foxes or other dogs. The newer leptospirosis vaccine protect against four varieties of the disease. We do not recommend using the old Distemper/Lepto vaccines that protect against only two varieties of Leptospirosis because they don't work against the type of Leptospirosis seen most frequently in our area.

Rabies

Spread by animal bites or through the saliva of an infected animal, rabies is always fatal. Because infected pets can give the disease to people, rabies immunization is something you don't want to ignore.
Rabies shots are started at sixteen weeks of age, boostered a year later, and every one to three years after that, depending on local laws and your veterinarian's recommendation. Unvaccinated dogs that come into close contact with a skunk must be quarantined or put to sleep. Vaccinated dogs that have skunk contact should be given a rabies booster as soon as possible, regardless of when they were last immunized.

Lyme disease

Spread by ticks, Lyme Disease has become a significant human health problem in El Dorado County, but because the disease is difficult and expensive to diagnose with certainty, there have been few proven cases in dogs. When we suspect Lyme disease, we treat with antibiotics. The dogs usually get better and we are seldom certain whether the condition being treated was Lyme disease or something else.
Dogs that roam in brushy areas and get lots of ticks should be vaccinated. Those restricted to their own immediate area and never get ticks probably don't need it. Immunization is given as an initial series of two injections three weeks apart followed by an annual booster.

Bordetella

Bordetella, a common cause of "kennel cough", is a severe but rarely fatal respiratory disease. Because it spreads through the air in confined areas, kennel cough is common even in clean, well run boarding kennels. If your dog will be at the groomer's frequently or periodically left at a kennel, it is wise to protect against the disease. Most boarding kennels require it. For dogs that don't need year 'round protection, the best time to administer the vaccine is two to four weeks before going to the kennel.

Worms

Roundworms & Hookworms

Heartguard Plus and Interceptor, two new combination heartworm medications, also kill the intestinal worms common in our area. By using either of these products, we eliminate the need for routine fecal examinations and separate worming medications. However, if your puppy has persistent diarrhea please bring in a small fecal sample to check for other less-common parasites.

Tapeworms

If you see little short white worms (1/2 inch long or less), these are probably tapeworm segments. When the segments dry they look like grains of brown rice and may stick to your dog's hair. If you see anything like this, let us know and we will dispense medicine to use at home. Prescription tapeworm drugs are extremely effective, very safe, and cause no discomfort whatever. Non prescription tapeworm medications don't work very well and often cause intestinal cramps and diarrhea.
Before dispensing medication, we need to know your dog's weight. If he is not extremely small or too large to lift, you can be sufficiently accurate by weighing yourself with and without the dog. Otherwise, bring him along. We will weigh him and set up the prescription when you come in.

Heartworms

Because of a mosquito species that lives in oak trees at our elevation, the Sierra foothills of Northern California have a serious heartworm problem-worse than just about anywhere else in the Western United States. In 1972, approximately one fourth of all heartworm cases reported in California were diagnosed at Placerville Veterinary Clinic. In our area, dogs that don't receive prevention medicine, especially if they sleep outdoors, will probably get heartworms.
If we discover the problem in time, heartworms can be eliminated, but treatment is difficult, dangerous, and expensive. And even with treatment, heartworms cause permanent damage. Although the treatment isn't nearly as dangerous as many people seem to believe, regular testing followed by treatment when needed is not a reasonable alternative to prevention.

Heartworm prevention

We recommend Interceptor Chewable Tablets, because they taste good and need to be given only once a month. In addition, Interceptor kills hookworms, whipworms and roundworms, eliminating the need for separate worming medications and routine fecal examinations. It is important to use Interceptor every month without fail.

Heartworm testing

Dogs with heartworm disease ordinarily have adult male and female worms living in the heart, and microscopic baby heartworms throughout the bloodstream. Baby heartworms become adults only after living in a mosquito and then getting into another dog when it is bitten by the mosquito.

Because we cannot detect heartworms until about six months after infection, we never know for sure if puppies already have heartworms when we start them on prevention medication. Although this is a concern, the risk of puppyhood infection is small, and we can safely wait to perform an initial heartworm test until about fifteen months of age, when rabies and distemper booster vaccinations are given. After that, we encourage you to test every two years to protect against the small possibility that a dose has been missed, or the extremely small possibility that the medicine isn't working.

Training

House Training

Puppies have a strong natural instinct to avoid soiling their own area. If you are consistent and patient, this natural urge for cleanliness makes house training fairly easy. You can begin training any time after five weeks of age. A little extra effort and patience in puppyhood will make the difference later on between a happy, cooperative pet and one that causes problems for you.

Establish a teacher-learner relationship

Use two types of rewards-praise and petting. When your puppy asks for attention, you probably respond by petting, which is only natural. Begin using these requests to show that you are the teacher and your puppy is the learner. It may sound silly but it's important to establish this relationship early in puppyhood.

Each time your puppy asks to be petted, respond by holding your hand about a foot above his nose and saying, "Rover (substitute your dog's name), sit." Move your hand back over his ears as you speak. This makes him look up, which is the first part of sitting. Keep repeating "good sit" until he sits. Then pet him on the throat and chest with your other hand for a few seconds as you repeat the praise. If not successful at first, repeat the procedure. When your dog sits from five to ten seconds, release him from the command by saying "OK", then pet and praise him again. Gradually increase the sitting time until you have reached one or two minutes before you say "OK". Be sure everyone who lives with the pet follows this procedure.

Consistent treatment from the whole family makes for a better adjusted, happier pet. Insist that your pet earn praise.

Teaching where to go

At first, feed at least three times a day. All dogs do not have the same digestive rates-you may need to feed your puppy as often as five times a day in order to avoid overloading his system and causing loose, difficult-to-control bowel movements. When you find the right schedule, the result is a dog that eats and then has a bowel movement within a few minutes.

Feed indoors. Remember, dogs do not like to eliminate where they eat. If your dog is urinating or defecating in a certain area, try feeding him right at that spot (after clean up, of course.)

Right after your dog finishes eating, chase him out good naturedly to his toilet area, ahead of you if possible. Then let him sniff around for a good spot. Do not confuse things by urging him to go. After he goes to the bathroom, crouch down and point at the urine or fecal matter and say "good dog". Look right at the stuff, not at the dog. If your dog sniffs it, praise and pet him enthusiastically.

Take your puppy outside

After waking up, even from a nap
After extreme excitement
After drinking water
After prolonged chewing on a toy, etc.
If he starts sniffing around the house for a good spot

In about four days your pup should automatically head for his proper place after meals or whenever the urge strikes. If it takes longer, be patient.

After this stage of house training, your puppy knows where to go, but not when to go. Do not try to teach self control (the "when" part) until you can be sure he will always head for the door when it's time to go.

Teaching when to go

To teach self control, you must keep feeding times consistent. Don't feed at 7:30 a.m. on week days and then sleep in on Sunday--you'll ruin the whole program. Dogs can control their urine for as long as thirteen hours when they need to. To teach self control, you should try to let your dog outdoors only at times when you are ordinarily home to do so. Whenever you see signs that your pup wants to go to the bathroom during the forbidden hours, try to distract him by tossing a ball, playing with a toy or doing any activity that will take his mind off the urge.

If possible, have your puppy sleep in a room with people. Because he will be inclined to tune into your sleeping times, there will be fewer accidents and less night time disturbance. Given a little blanket as a bed, most puppies soon learn to sleep through the entire night.

How to deal with mistakes

Old fashioned house training methods tell us to grab the puppy, show him the mess and punish him. This is not necessary and probably harmful. Instead, if you discover an accident, just say "ugh" disgustedly and whisk puppy out to his proper toilet area. Leave him there while you clean up the mess. Make sure he cannot see you cleaning up. Strangely, many dogs find it rewarding to watch their owner picking up stools or cleaning urine, and often leave another such gift as soon as they can. Because puppies seem to enjoy this game, it is a good idea to have them watch you clean up after they go to the bathroom in the correct place.

To discourage repeat visits, accidents must be cleaned up well enough to completely eliminate odor. After blotting and cleaning as best you can with paper towels, soak the stained area with an enzymatic cleaner. Let it remain on the stain 30 minutes or longer, blot up the liquid, and if still necessary, use regular rug cleaner afterwards. To work properly, the enzyme cleaner must be used before using regular rug cleaner.

Puppy's Place in the Family

The reason dogs are such good pets and fit so well into human society is that they are social animals by nature. Their greatest psychological need is to be part of a group. Whether it's a family of just you and puppy, or a boisterous household full of children and pets, in order to be happy your new puppy must feel secure about her place in the group.

If you watch puppies at play, you will see a lot of growling and tussling. There is more to this play fighting than meets the eye. Those little guys are already deciding who is going to be "top dog". Whether you realize it or not, something very much like this play fighting is happening at home between your puppy and the rest of the family.

To be confident and secure what puppies need most is a master they can depend on. For your dog to have a happy life and be a pleasure to own, at least one person in the family must become such a master. Dogs have no mental concept of "friends and equals". Somebody has to be boss. Assertive puppies will grow up trying to be boss, which won't make either one of you happy. A submissive puppy may spend its entire life fretting and worrying, never sure what is expected. Everything usually works out just fine automatically--puppies find their place in the family without much trouble and everyone is happy with the arrangement. If, on the other hand, you have a strongly assertive or unusually submissive pet there are some things you should keep in mind:

Working with an assertive puppy

Assertive puppies tend to immediately investigate new people and objects. They are quick to begin play fighting activities with people. When they want to be petted or fed, they are insistent and demanding. These puppies fall easily into the role of family protector because they think the people belong to them. This is well and good, but because dogs cannot really understand human society, there is soon trouble. They may try to defend you from everyone, and biting the UPS man because he invades your yard is not ok. Biting the children is not ok. The most serious problems happen when grandchildren are involved. Perceived either as an outside threat or a competitor, it is not unusual for grandchildren to be badly injured by big assertive dogs.

The training techniques used to establish your teacher-learner relationship are especially important. Remember that your dog will be much happier in the long run if he earns praise and pleasure by obeying you, not by demanding it.

It is especially important for you to be master. Do not allow your dog to nip or bite at you in a friendly way. Do not stimulate your puppy by waving your arms and acting excited or by playing tug of war. Do not become what your puppy perceives to be an equal and competitive playmate.

Working with a submissive puppy

Submissive puppies tend to "shy away" from new people or things, either by lying down or actually running away. It is normal for most puppies to be slightly submissive. They wish for nothing more than to please you and this makes them easy to train.

Teach shy puppies things they can do that will earn your calm, reassuring praise. Try to provide a peaceful environment and a dependable schedule that includes exercise, a daily obedience session, and reliable feeding times.

submissive urination

Most puppies and young dogs have a tendency to urinate in response to new situations, when meeting a stranger, or even when their owners come home and greet them excitedly. This is a sign that your puppy is uncertain about what is expected. Never scold when this happens. Puppy is already trying hard to please. Calmly reassure, ignoring the urination. Clean up later, in private.

fear biting

If puppies don't know what is expected of them, particularly if they are beginning to believe that people are supposed to do what dogs tell them to do, they may react inappropriately to strangers. The puppy is afraid, but psychologically unable to be completely submissive. They usually show signs of fear and try to run away from a threatening situation, but when escape is prevented, they bite. It happens when children insist on petting a frightened dog, and happens at the veterinarian's office. These puppies need the firm leadership and reassurance best achieved through obedience training.

Destructive Chewing

It is natural for puppies to chew--that's one of the ways they explore and learn. Try to keep valuable objects that are chewable safely out of reach and provide a satisfactory alternative like a Nylabone chew toy. Destructive chewing is merely a way to work off excitement and relieve frustration, not an insidious plan to get even with you. Help encourage your puppy to be calm. Be easygoing. Don't encourage tug of war or play that involves chewing and biting.
When you leave home for the day, don't make it into a big deal for the dog. By showing lots of emotion of any sort (threats or cheerfulness, it doesn't matter) you build up emotional stress. This is often vented in destructive chewing. Your last three or four minutes at home should be spent calmly reading or sitting. Then get up and leave, ignoring your puppy completely--don't even say goodbye. Arrive home the same way. Ignore your puppy at first and avoid the area where things are most likely to have been chewed. If things are a mess when you get home, don't let puppy know you care. Behave calmly. Clean up later when your puppy can't watch. Do not build up more stress by scolding--that just makes things worse. Again, work on teaching simple obedience and building the teacher-learner relationship. Puppies need a calm, dependable master.

Chew Treats, Bones and Toys

Don't give your puppy anything small enough to swallow that can't be digested, or things that can be chewed into large indigestible chunks and swallowed.

Chicken bones, rib bones, and pork bones are the most likely to cause trouble. Old gooey rawhide chews or bones from the butcher that have been around for a few days get rotten and stinky and cause diarrhea. If you give things like this (not really a good idea), use good sense. Bones should be too large to swallow and solid enough that they won't be broken up into smaller chunks. Hooves, pig's ears, and miscellaneous semi-digestible treats probably aren't a good idea either, but if you use them be sure they are too large to be swallowed whole, or small enough to go all the way through.

Instead, we suggest using flavored Nylabone or Nylafloss chew toys. If your puppy first learns to prefer bones and rawhide, he probably won't think chew toys are all that great, so use them from the beginning. Nylafloss looks like a big thick chunk of nylon rope. Puppies like it because they can really sink their teeth into the rope, and it helps keep the teeth clean.

Can Moths Or Butterflies Remember What They Learned As Caterpillars?

Butterflies and moths are well known for their striking metamorphosis from crawling caterpillars to winged adults. In light of this radical change, not just in body form, but also in lifestyle, diet and dependence on particular sensory cues, it would seem unlikely that learned associations or memories formed at the larval or caterpillar stage could be accessible to the adult moth or butterfly. However, scientists at Georgetown University recently discovered that a moth can indeed remember what it learned as a caterpillar.

The Georgetown researchers found that tobacco hornworm caterpillars could be trained to avoid particular odors delivered in association with a mild shock. When adult moths emerged from the pupae of trained caterpillars, they also avoided the odors, showing that they retained their larval memory. The Georgetown University study is the first to demonstrate conclusively that associative memory can survive metamorphosis in Lepidoptera--the order of insects that includes moths and butterflies--and provokes new questions about the organization and persistence of the central nervous system during metamorphosis.

"The intriguing idea that a caterpillar's experiences can persist in the adult butterfly or moth captures the imagination, as it challenges a broadly-held view of metamorphosis -- that the larva essentially turns to soup and its components are entirely rebuilt as a butterfly," says senior author Martha Weiss, an associate professor of Biology at Georgetown University.

"Scientists have been interested in whether memory can survive metamorphosis for over a hundred years," says first author Doug Blackiston, who completed the interdisciplinary research while earning a PhD in Biology from Georgetown University in the labs of developmental biologist Elena Casey and behavioral ecologist Martha Weiss. The brain and nervous system of caterpillars is dramatically reorganized during the pupal stage and it has not been clear whether memory could survive such drastic changes.

The findings of the Georgetown researchers suggest the retention of memory is dependent on the maturity of the developing caterpillars' brains. Caterpillars younger than three weeks of age learned to avoid an odor, but could not recall the information as adults, whereas older caterpillars, conditioned in the final larval stage before pupation, learned to avoid the odor and recalled the information as adults. In addition, the results have both ecological and evolutionary implications, as retention of memory through metamorphosis could allow a female butterfly or other insect to lay her eggs on the type of host plant that she herself had fed on as a larva, a behavior that could shape habitat selection and eventually lead to development of a new species.

While most research on learning and memory in insects has centered on social insects, such as honeybees or ants, Weiss' lab is particularly interested in solitary insects, such as butterflies, praying mantids, and mud-dauber wasps. Weiss and her colleagues will continue to study how these self-sufficient, multitasking insects use learning and memory skills to adapt to their environments.

This study was farther afield from the neural cell specification research that is ongoing in Casey's lab. Casey, associate professor of Biology at Georgetown, focuses on identifying the signals that are required to direct a cell to develop into a neuron and determining how the complex human central nervous system evolved.

Bird Beaks: Anatomy, Care, and Diseases

A bird's beak, also called the "rostrum," is used for many things from a weapon for enemies, to grooming, to the delicate feeding of a nestling. Beaks can be a combination of strength and sensitivity, strong enough to crack a walnut yet delicate enough to peel a grape.

Anatomy

A bird, like a mammal, has two jaws: the upper is the maxilla and the lower is the mandible. The nostrils, or nares, are located at the junction between the beak and the head. In most parrots, a small, round, brown structure, called the operculum is found inside of the nostril. This is comprised of cartilage and should not be mistaken for an obstruction or foreign body, such as a seed. Some species of birds, such as the parrots, have an area of fleshy tissue that contains the nares. This is called the cere. In budgies, the cere is blue in adult males, and a pinkish brown in females.

The beak is comprised of the jaw bone covered with a lightweight sheath called the rhamphotheca. The rhamphotheca is made of keratin, which is the same substance found in antlers or our fingernails. And like horns or fingernails, the beak is constantly growing. Depending upon the species, a bird's beak grows from one to three inches a year. The portion of the rhamphotheca covering the maxilla is called the rhinotheca, and that covering the mandible is the gnatotheca.

The proximal (closest to the bird) portion of the beak has a blood supply and a significant number of nerve endings. The distal portion (toward the tip) of the beak, like the end of a fingernail, does not sense pain.

Some parrots have file-like ridges crossing the inside of the upper bill. These aid the bird in cracking nuts and hard fruits.

There is a great variation in the size, shape, and strength of beaks. The type of beak a bird has is usually related to the type of food the bird normally eats.

• Strong, hook-like beaks, such as those on toucans and parrots, can crack an outer shell of a nut or the tough outer skins of certain fruits.

• Short, straight bills are perfect for seed and grub eaters. These include finches and canaries.

• Nectar-eating birds, such as hummingbirds, have long, pointed beaks for reaching into the heart of a flower.

• Wild birds, such as woodpeckers, have extremely strong, chisel-like beaks.

• Water birds, such as cranes, may have long beaks for probing; birds such as ducks and flamingos have flat beaks with special plates called lamellae, which help filter food.

• Raptors have hook-like beaks used for tearing food.

• Insect-eating birds, such as warblers, have short beaks.

• Some birds, such as swifts, have wide mouths, for catching insects while flying.

Signs of a healthy beak

A healthy bird has a healthy beak. And a healthy beak means that your bird will be using it to eat, play, and chew. If your bird's beak is causing him discomfort in some way, he will avoid using it. Signs that your bird's beak is in healthy include:

• Smooth, symmetrical appearance

• No peeling or unusual textures (Members of the cockatoo family should have fine powder on their beaks, the result of proper grooming of healthy feathers. See Feather Types, Anatomy, and Molting)

• No discolored areas

• Proper beak length (Check with your regular avian veterinarian to see if the tip of your bird's beak is as short as it should be for her particular species).

• Proper alignment of the upper beak and lower beak

Abnormal beak growth and development

The most common beak abnormalities include:

• Overgrown beak
• Scissors beak
• Prognathism or "parrot beak"

Overgrown beak: Either the upper or lower beak may overgrow, though it is far more common for the upper beak to do so. For some normal birds, regular beak trimming is necessary. Other birds may keep their beaks in proper form through eating a hard diet, grooming, climbing, chewing on toys, and rubbing the beak on a slightly abrasive surface. An overgrown beak can be the result of health problems including trauma, developmental abnormalities, nutritional imbalances, polyomavirus-like infection (finches), or liver disease (especially in budgies). See table below.

Treatment consists of trimming the beak to the proper shape and removing any excessive flaking. An overgrown beak is similar to an overgrown fingernail in that the overgrown portion has no sense of pain. The overgrown portion may be safely trimmed back to normal length without causing discomfort to the bird. Beak trimming is best performed by a veterinarian, unless you have considerable experience. If a beak is trimmed too short, it will cause the bird pain, will bleed, and may make it difficult or impossible for a bird to eat. Beak trimming may be performed using manual tools, such as human fingernail clippers and nail files, or side-cutting wire cutters. Some veterinarians prefer to use a Dremel drill grinding stone. In either case, the bird is generally not anesthetized for the procedure.

Scissors beak: Scissors beak is a lateral deviation of the rhinotheca. It is a developmental abnormality that occurs most commonly in cockatoos and macaws. It is thought to be caused by improper temperature during artificial incubation, genetics, or incorrect feeding techniques. Other possible causes include calcium deficiency, trauma, or a viral or mycobacterial infection.

Treatment varies with the severity of the problem and the age of the bird. In young birds with mild deviations, simply applying finger pressure to the appropriate side of the beak for several minutes 2-3 times daily, may correct the problem. In older birds, or those with more severe deviations, an avian veterinarian may need to perform surgery and apply a type of acrylic prosthesis (splint) to correct the abnormal growth.

Prognathism or "Parrot Beak:" Mandibular prognathism occurs when the tip of the rhinotheca rests on or inside the gnatotheca. This developmental abnormality is most commonly seen in cockatoos. The cause of this condition is unknown, and may include genetics, improper incubation, and hand-feeding techniques. It is rarely seen in parent raised birds. It is thought that when parent birds hook onto the chick's rhinotheca during feeding, they help to promote the normal development of the chick's beak.

As with scissors beak, treatment varies with the severity of the condition and the age of the bird. For some chicks, applying finger pressure several times daily may help, as will using a piece of gauze to apply traction to the upper beak during feeding. In an older bird, in which the beak has calcified, treatment generally involves the placement of an acrylic appliance on the beak. The type of appliance varies depending upon the extent of the problem.

At-home beak care

Beak care is critical for the overall health of the bird. The beak is the entry for nutrients, and is used for climbing and playing. We can help promote beak health by ensuring the bird is getting all the nutrients he needs and detecting any problems early. Some at-home care includes:

• Daily checking the health of your bird. Look for cracks, overgrowth, or discoloration of the beak.

• Consulting an avian veterinarian if you suspect that your bird's beak is growing unevenly. This can indicate underlying problems such as liver or nutritional issues. Your avian veterinarian can determine the reason for the problem as well as trim it to prevent problems with eating or preening.

• Providing chewing toys, any toy that a bird has to work at chewing will help keep his beak trim. These include build-your-own toys that you can make by alternating mineral pieces with rope, wooden, blocks, and plastic.

• Including different textures of perches, including cement perches specifically made for beak and nail health. Note: Do not use sandpaper perches.

• Housing the bird in a proper size cage. Owners of large parrots, especially, need to provide a sturdy cage. Parrot owners we know have come home to a flimsy cage with snapped bars and the soldering (made of toxic lead and zinc in some inexpensive cages) chewed off.

Trauma

Trauma to the beak may occur as the result of fighting, chewing on electric cords, hitting the beak while flying or landing, or having the beak trapped between cage bars or other hard surfaces. Injuries may include fractures, punctures, and avulsions (tearing away of the beak). Injuries to the beak often bleed, and the hemorrhage needs to be stopped (usually with electrocautery. DO NOT use silver nitrate sticks - they are toxic to birds). The wounds must be cleaned and antibiotics and antifungals may need to be given. The beak has nerve endings, and pain or the displacement of the beak may make eating difficult or impossible. All birds with beak injuries should be examined by a veterinarian. Acrylics may be used to repair the beak until new tissue replaces it.

Other beak conditions

There are many diseases and conditions that can affect the health of the beak, as shown in the following table.

Common Beak Lesions
Lesion	Possible Cause	Species
Abnormal growth	Liver disease Knemidocoptes mites Polyomavirus-like infection Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) Vitamin D3 deficiency Soft food Malnutrition Old trauma	Budgies Budgies Finches
Shiny surface to beak (instead of powdery appearance)	PBFD	Cockatoos
Crusty lesions	Avian Pox Knemidocoptes mites Bacterial infection	Amazon parrots Budgies
Soft, pliable beak ("rubber beak")	Calcium or Vitamin D deficiency	Cockatiels
Discoloration	Malnutrition or systemic disease	Toucans and Lorikeets
White lesions in mouth, excess mucus, swelling	Candida infection Trichomonas infection Bacterial infection Vitamin A deficiency
Sunken, irregular lesions	Old trauma Aspergillus infection Candida infection Bacterial infection PBFD
Ulcerative lesions at beak junction	Avian Pox Trichomonas	Cockatiels

Adrenal Gland Cancer in Ferrets: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

Adrenal gland disease is common in ferrets over 4 years old. The normal adrenal gland contains several types of cells that produce different hormones, such as cortisone and some male and female hormones. Excessive amounts of female hormones are often produced by adrenal gland tumors. Palpation, radiography, and ultrasonography are used to identify an enlarged adrenal gland. The enlargement may be caused by hyperplasia (normal cells proliferating at an unusual rate), or by a benign or malignant tumor. Possible cause of adrenal gland disease Early spaying or neutering It has been suggested that spaying and neutering 6- to 7-week-old ferrets induces adrenal gland disease. The theory is that the adrenal glands of animals spayed or neutered at a very young age might try to compensate for the lack of normal sex hormones by proliferation of cells in the adrenal gland that produce sex hormones. However, many ferrets spayed or neutered when much older have developed adrenal gland tumors, and occasionally animals that have not been spayed or neutered also have adrenal gland tumors. Individual people and animals are more susceptible to some types of cancer than others. Some ferret families may be especially susceptible to adrenal gland cancer. It is likely that more than one factor determines any ferret's susceptibility to adrenal gland abnormalities. Early spaying or neutering is certainly not the whole answer, and may not even be part of the answer. The disease was uncommon in the hunting ferrets that were their ancestors, and is still rare in animals that live outside, as they tend to do in the United Kingdom and in Australia. The incidence of adrenal gland disease is increasing in the United Kingdom as pet ferrets begin to share their owners' homes instead of living in the back garden. Extended photoperiod It is possible that the incidence of adrenal gland disease has increased because we have forced our ferrets to adapt to our life style. Ferrets are strongly affected by photoperiod. Under natural conditions, there are only about 8 hours of strong light a day in the winter months, and the proportions of light and dark gradually change during the spring and fall. We have removed all these stimuli when we keep the ferret in a house where electric lights extend day length to at least 12 hours, all year round. Changing photoperiod causes the ferret to lose weight and hair in the spring, and come into breeding condition. In the fall, as the hours of light decrease, ferrets stop breeding, grow a heavy winter coat, and put on extra fat to prepare for the cold weather. A primitive part of the brain called the pineal gland mediates the ferret's response to light. The pineal gland produces a hormone called melatonin only during hours of darkness. Melatonin reduces the output of gonadotrophins from the pituitary gland. Gonadotrophins bind to cells in the ovary or testicle, inducing production of sex hormones. The same gonadotrophins also bind to cells in the adrenal gland. When ovaries and testicles are removed, these gonadotrophins can bind only to adrenal cortical cells. It is possible that constant stimulation of the adrenal glands because of the long hours of light eventually causes first benign hyperplasia (enlargement), and then benign tumors to develop in the adrenal cortex. In some animals, the tumors become malignant or are malignant from the outset. Whether the condition is hypertrophy, a benign tumor, or cancer, excessive levels of adrenal cortical hormones are produced. Hyperplasia, in some instances, may be corrected if the ferret is put in a place where the light can be limited to 8 hours a day. The ferret's hair may start to regrow 3 to 6 weeks after the change. By definition, tumor cells are out of control, and modifying photoperiod cannot reverse hair loss when any type of tumor is producing sex hormones. People want their ferrets to be awake and playing in the evening when they come home from work, so the ferret is exposed to natural light all day, and artificial light in the evening. The obvious way to limit the ferret's exposure to 8 hours of light a day, without preventing him from interacting with his family, is to give him a dark place to sleep during the day. It has to be really dark, excluding all light, like a moonless night. This might be arranged by putting the ferret's cage inside a well-ventilated closet, or using light-excluding drapes on the windows in the ferret's room. Reducing the ferret's exposure to light usually results in an improvement in coat condition and an increase in body weight a few weeks after the new arrangement - these responses show that the original photoperiod was too long. Providing short days only during the winter months is sufficient, as this mimics the natural seasonal variation in day length. In a survey of about 300 ferrets performed in the Chicago area in the early '90's, the lowest incidence of adrenal gland tumors was found in ferrets used for breeding, and these animals must have been housed under short photoperiod at least part of the year or they would not have been productive. The association between adrenal gland tumors and artificial light conditions cannot be ignored. Even if there is also some association with removal of gonads, the risk of not spaying is far greater than the chance that a spayed jill will develop adrenal tumors at a young age. About 50% of unspayed jills left in heat too long will develop bone marrow hypoplasia and die, but under natural light conditions, a very small percentage of ferrets spayed at any age develop adrenal tumors. Signs that a ferret has an adrenal tumor Sometimes weight loss; hair loss - especially at the base of the tail, feet and abdomen; and scratching for no apparent reason, are the only early signs of adrenal cancer in either a male or female ferret. Intact hobs with adrenal tumors might have permanently enlarged testicles but will be sterile. The first sign noticed by the owner of a spayed female with an adrenal gland tumor is often the sudden appearance of a swollen vulva, as if she were in heat. Signs of adrenal disease in ferrets: Hair loss, either in a symmetrical pattern or patchy with no apparent patten. This may come and go depending upon the season. Hair which pulls out easily. Loss of appetite. Lethargy Papery thin or translucent looking skin, sometimes with sores from scratching. Excessive scratching and itchiness, especially between the shoulder blades. Increase in musky body odor. Excessive grooming of self or other ferrets, including ear sucking. Sexual aggression and mating behavior in neutered males - with other ferrets, inanimate objects, etc. Swollen vulva in spayed females, with or without a mucous discharge. Difficulty urinating for males - this is a sign of an enlarged prostate, a condition usually associated with adrenal disease. Weakness in back legs - usually seen in advanced or extreme cases. Increased thirst, increased urination. Weight loss due to a decrease in muscle mass, but with a pot bellied appearance. Causes of hyperestrogenism in jills There are two common reasons for jills coming in heat long after they have been spayed. A mistake made during the spay surgery is not one of them. A jill spayed incompletely as a kit comes in heat at 4 to 6 months old, depending on the hours of light each day, the same as if she were not spayed at all. 1. Ectopic ovarian tissue Occasionally ovarian tissue grows at the site of the spay surgery, or elsewhere in the abdomen. It is not regrowth of an ovary, it is new tissue that functions like an ovarian follicle, producing estrogen. This may happen years after the spay, for unknown reasons. If the jill is left in heat a long time, she can suffer the same side effects as with a normal estrus, including loss of hair and suppression of bone marrow. Surgical removal of the abnormal tissue immediately ends the estrus and its side effects. Injectable hormones, that work well on normal jills in heat, do not always work on jills with ectopic ovarian tissue. 2. Adrenal gland tumors Exploratory surgery may be necessary to distinguish jills with adrenal gland tumors from those with ectopic ovarian tissue. It is possible for a jill to have both problems at once. To distinguish between these conditions and diagnose adrenal gland disease, blood tests for certain steroid hormones (often called "Tennessee Panel"), ultrasound imaging or surgery would need to be performed. Prognosis for ferrets with adrenal gland tumors If left untreated, ferrets with adrenal gland tumors usually lose all but the hair on their heads and a tuft on the tail tip. Their skin gets very thin, they have a pot-bellied appearance, and they sleep most of the time. Fortunately, although they have an odd appearance with almost no fur on their bodies, ferrets with benign adrenal gland tumors can live a reasonably normal life, if they do not become anemic due to high levels of estrogen. Jills often appear to be in heat, and because this is associated with a swollen and open vulva, they are susceptible to urinary tract infections. Neutered or intact male ferrets may develop life-threatening urinary obstruction because high hormone levels cause the prostate gland to hypertrophy (enlarge) and constrict the neck of the bladder. Treatment of adrenal gland disease Surgery The most effective treatment is to surgically remove the abnormal adrenal gland. This is the only choice to relieve prostate hypertrophy, which it does within 48 hours. The adrenal glands produce many important substances required for life. If there are tumors on both glands, one can be removed, but part of the second one must remain, even if it means leaving part of the tumor there, too. New techniques using cryosurgery have made removal of an adrenal gland a safer procedure, and most ferrets recover uneventfully. Medical Treatment Leuprolide acetate (Lupron Depot) can be given as an injection. Thus medication will alleviate some or all of the symptoms but will not cure the disease, and will need to be given for the rest of the ferrets life. Melatonin has shown some success alleviating the symptoms of adrenal gland disease in ferrets. Mitotane (Lysodren) is a drug that reduces the amount of hormone being produced by a benign inoperable tumor, extending the quality life time of the ferret. Unfortunately it has side effects, and is no longer commonly used. Some tumors are malignant and do not respond to medical treatments. They metastasize to other organs or recur after removal. Ferrets with malignant tumors have a short life expectancy after diagnosis.